WooCommerce Registration, Sync User, Billing and Shipping info

But, from what I can tell, this is only set to fire when a user
updates their own profile.

Yes, that’s correct.

Running it as I created a user account didn’t produce the results I
was looking for.

The hook you should use when the user is being created/registered, is user_register.

So you would use this, where you hook to both profile_update and user_register:

// Note that you should use add_action() and not add_filter()
add_action( 'profile_update', 'custom_update_checkout_fields' );
add_action( 'user_register', 'custom_update_checkout_fields' );

And since the second hook (user_register) only provides one parameter, then just omit the $old_user_data from the function; and secondly, you should use get_userdata() and not wp_get_current_user() to get the user being updated or created.

The full code I used:

add_action( 'profile_update', 'custom_update_checkout_fields' ); // Fires immediately after an existing user is updated.
add_action( 'user_register', 'custom_update_checkout_fields' );  // Fires immediately after a new user is registered.
function custom_update_checkout_fields( $user_id ) {
    $current_user = get_userdata( $user_id ); // Here we use get_userdata() and not wp_get_current_user().

    // Updating Billing info
    if ( $current_user->user_firstname != $current_user->billing_first_name )
        update_user_meta( $user_id, 'billing_first_name', $current_user->user_firstname );
    if ( $current_user->user_lastname != $current_user->billing_last_name )
        update_user_meta( $user_id, 'billing_last_name', $current_user->user_lastname );
    if ( $current_user->user_email != $current_user->billing_email )
        update_user_meta( $user_id, 'billing_email', $current_user->user_email );

    // Updating Shipping info
    if ( $current_user->user_firstname != $current_user->shipping_first_name )
        update_user_meta( $user_id, 'shipping_first_name', $current_user->user_firstname );
    if ( $current_user->user_lastname != $current_user->shipping_last_name )
        update_user_meta( $user_id, 'shipping_last_name', $current_user->user_lastname );
    if ( $current_user->user_email != $current_user->shipping_email )
        update_user_meta( $user_id, 'shipping_email', $current_user->user_email );
}

Note though, the user_register hook wouldn’t be called if the customer is anonymous and not allowed to create a WordPress/user account.

Additional Code

You can use the woocommerce_checkout_get_value hook to auto-fill the form data, although WooCommerce actually does the auto-fill if the metadata exist.

add_filter( 'woocommerce_checkout_get_value', 'custom_autofill_customer_data', 10, 2 );
function custom_autofill_customer_data( $value, $input ) {
    $current_user = wp_get_current_user();
    if ( $current_user ) {
        switch ( $input ) {
            case 'billing_first_name':
            case 'shipping_first_name':
                return $current_user->user_firstname;

            case 'billing_last_name':
            case 'shipping_last_name':
                return $current_user->user_lastname;

            case 'billing_email':
            case 'shipping_email':
                return $current_user->user_email;
        }
    }
    return $value;
}