New Page/Post Screen Opens an Existing Post

Turns out that a previously-modified line in the Yoast SEO source code had been reverted, so this error came back in debug.log: 1Uncaught TypeError: Argument 2 passed to WPSEO_Link_Watcher::save_post() must be an instance of WP_Post, null given.

Disabling Yoast resolved the New Page/Post error, however I believe the root cause was that the database has been around for a few versions of WordPress and needs to be rebuilt soon for better stability (just like re-installing Windows after a couple years).

EDIT: So the root cause was that at some point wp_posts lost its primary key and had auto-increment disabled on ID, so new DB entries were all getting an ID of 0. Then, when we tried to restore the backup of that database snapshot, we received import errors because of the duplicate ID entries, causing an incomplete database restore. Once we removed the extra ID 0 entries we were able to properly import our database backup and get the site to its former glory.