No.
You’d have to change core WordPress functionality to achieve that (lots of work, and you’ll have to do it again for each upgrade). And if you’re finished with that, you’ll probably have to change some plugins as well.
Generally, a big wp_posts table isn’t a problem. If your site is slow, look into where it is slowed down. Maybe you have suboptimal SQL queries somewhere that don’t use MySQL efficiently, or some widget is iterating over all posts before it selects 5 to show.
Another general recommendation: make sure that you’re running on adequate hardware. You will see significant speed increases if you upgrade from a cheap VPS with little RAM and a limited VCPU to a dedicated machine (or a more powerful VPS), especially if you have lots of traffic.
Look into caching – make sure that as few requests as possible are hitting WP itself, because those are expensive, and the fewer you have, the faster every single one will be (this is a generalization, of course), because it’ll get the undivided attention of your system.
If you don’t find a solution that way, look at what’s actually in your wp_posts-table. You can safely delete old revisions you don’t need any longer (remember to also clean them out of your wp_postmeta), and you might find that some plugin is creating lots of unnecessary posts of a custom post type.