Is it possible to use add_filter in an included file in the child theme’s functions.php?

What you’re trying to do is possible.

When including php files, use get_stylesheet_directory() in child themes and get_template_directory() in parent themes.

E.g.
require_once( get_stylesheet_directory() . '/inc/myfile.php');

get_stylesheet_directory_uri() and get_template_directory_uri() will return URLs. Those functions are useful when enqueuing public assets such as stylesheets and JavaScript.

Also, setting allow_url_include to Off in your php.ini will provide better error reporting in these situations (source).