Is it possible to change the path of a css file that is registered through wp_enqueue_style()?

I wonder if you are looking for the style_loader_src filter?

For example:

add_filter( 'style_loader_src', 
    function ( $src ){

        // ... your stuff ... 

        return $src;
    }
);

Similarly there exists the script_loader_src filter.

There’s also the base_url property of the global $wp_scripts and $wp_styles objects, but I think that’s only used for enqueued native styles and scripts.