Daily automatic update of stock quotes via REST API and Cronjob. Or is there a more sophisticated way?

I would recommend you to separate your data from wp-data. To realize your idea, setup a new data table for time series data. Write a php script to request your data from desired source and create a cronjob. If your hoster does not provide cronjob creation, use a cronjob service. Depending on the amount of data you request, you probably have to create approx. 10 cronjobs.

Then, create a new table for YTD performance values and create a new php script to calculate YTD performance. This should work very quickly, so you will probably need only one cronjob (I suppose, maximum 4 cronjobs).

Now you will have the time series data and the performance data in two separate tables. To show YTD data in your WordPress, create a shortcode in your functions.php like I did here.